Civilization of parasites or who governs us Bashny.Net

We are governed by parasites. And it's not a figure of speech, not an attempt to portray a beautiful metaphor. Everything literally. Parasites have established our company in the form in which we know it. Our relationship with each other - love, hate, friendship, hatred and xenophobia - all these ways of protection. Parasites have given us religion, the state, to determine the social order. On them depends a lot in our lives.

FACT

Research (. Mortensen et al, 2010) found that when people show pictures depicting the signs of the disease, they immediately change two characteristics: reduced desire to communicate and decreases openness to new experience. Scientists have even noticed that people viewing these photographs produce the characteristic gestures of repulsion hands. Our world is rich in a wide variety of cultures - the same people, but how different languages ​​and dialects, socio-economic and political structure, family tradition and upbringing of children, clothing, religious beliefs, customs and cuisine. In a recent article, which received wide resonance (Fincher & amp; Thornhill, 2012), biologists from the University of New Mexico in the United States put forward the hypothesis that much of this diversity is determined parasites! Namely, infectious diseases caused by parasites, such as leishmaniasis, dengue fever and many others.

MAN - a result of selection

We start introduction to this unusual sight with the parasite hypothesis of socialization. She says that parasites, infectious and opportunistic diseases were the main cause of illness and death, playing a key role in human breeding throughout evolution. Man has adapted to these sources of diseases by protecting yourself the innate immune system. In addition to it, we have a behavioral immune system - best line to help avoid infection even at a distance. So, if we see repeatedly that someone sneezes, our immune system is activated with a high probability. Behavioral immune system manifests itself in feelings, attitudes and behavior in relation to other people who look bad, like a sick or infected. One of the manifestations of the behavioral immune system is selective socialization. We all tend to deal with people like us. But be selective socialization may be different (Fincher & amp; Thornhill, 2008). This may be ethnocentrism - favoritism to members of their own group, and xenophobia - a dislike to the members of other communities and groups. Or so phylopatry common - the desire to return to the place of birth, residence, together with loved ones, without departing from the usual. Mankind has acquired several hundred different parasites, which jointly evolved past few million years (Cox, 2002). Sometimes it even leads to symbiosis - so the mitochondria, the energy producer in the human cells, in the past - parasitic bacterium, still has its own independent DNA code (Searcy, 2003). Adapting to these bacteria, we came up with a variety of methods for dealing with them, and they worked out new tricks. This is truly an endless arms race that will end not soon.

Each tribe - software mutants

Adaptation has meant that we have been very resistant to certain parasites and infections, living in the neighborhood. At the same time we can be vulnerable to strangers, brought from other areas by bacteria. It's not just been confirmed. So, Leishmania braziliensis - cutaneous leishmaniasis, which is transmitted by mosquitoes, was found in 124 species in Peru and Bolivia. In 124 tribes were produced exactly 124 mutant parasite. Parasites have evolved along with man, and it has formed a bizarre mosaic of settlement of various tribes (Rougeron et al., 2009). The same pattern is observed in the Sudanese villages - every village has its own unique strain (Miller et al, 2007.). In many Indian caste - their unique species of parasites. There is a hypothesis that the very caste formed due to different adaptations to parasites (McNeill, 1998). And the more dangerous bacteria in the environment, the smaller the society. Thus, in regions with high parasitic voltage larger ethnic groups (Cashdans, 2001). And in this light, it is not surprising that the closer to the southern edges of the larger ethnic groups live in the same area territory. The researcher Jared Diamond in an article in Nature in 1997, wrote (Diamond, 1997) that in Europe only 63 languages, while in New Guinea about 1000 languages.

WE brought autocracy to "Aliens»

Another interesting fact - it turns out, the idea of ​​collectivism and individualism just talking about the degree of infection (Fincher et al, 2008.). The greater the probability of catching a parasitic infection, the more popular in the society the ideas of collectivism. Collectivism emphasizes boundaries between his group and other contacts between them are limited. But individualistic approach is more open to the group boundaries. The man in the ideology of individualism is free to develop their group to change its social and mobile. At the same time, teamwork is always accompanied by a greater or lesser degree of autocracy, support the traditional role of women (male slave) limitation manifestation of female sexuality. Individualism - liberal and gives a woman everything she wants. Interestingly, women are more free in northern countries, where the parasites survive with difficulty. In the areas where the risk of infection is minimal socialization election is weakened and people are more willing and more likely to come into contact with other cultures. This leads to new opportunities in the economy and culture, exchange of goods, technologies and ideas. For example, the vast majority of innovation in China comes from the northern regions, where the parasitic stress (1) is lower than in the south (McNeill, 1998).

As parasites GOVERN FAMILY

We all have parents, but people are different in how they are similar and are dependent on their family and how deep family ties extend. In the course of evolution and in a strong parasitic stress people around you - the only insurance against disease. Stay closer to each other, to limit contact with the outside world - and adaptation to the existing parasites can survive. Thus, it is vital and beneficial to invest in the family, and is very dangerous to be an outcast. If you are an individualist, not chtish family and behave, not looking at others who will give you water, and ignite a fire to warm when you get sick? Tellingly, the family ties are stronger in all it was a collectivist society (Fincher & amp; Thornhill, 2012). But there is a little scary and sad thought, in the last fifty years, when the sanitary and hygienic standards and medical care have caused significant damage to parasitic infections, the divorce rate has reached 50%. But if the parasite hypothesis is true, then it turns out that in the strength of our families they meet ?!

RELIGION - intrusion

If not for the parasites, then we may not have been familiar with the phenomenon of religion. Membership of the group has a lot of elements, which serve as the boundary between "their" and "foreign": language and dialect, clothes, songs, music, cuisine and religion. It borders on different levels - external, like a garment, and deeper as beliefs. We can recognize their group member or a stranger from afar - their clothes and hair, but a conspiracy - in language and to what he believes. In this sense, religion as part of the border is no different on the national cuisine.

Parasitic stress - a different level of possibility of contracting infectious diseases transmitted by parasites

. Participation in religious activity - activity that requires investment: it is necessary to learn the basics, go to the ceremony, and to donate money to pay and so on. In addition, it brings certain social benefits - a person raises the status of the group. The more expensive the entry and maintenance of the status of the church and the stricter its orders, the higher the commitment of its followers, and more committed to their people group. Moreover, the higher the probability of infection of parasitic infectious diseases, the greater will be the manifestations of religiosity. Meta-analysis (Saroglou et al., 2004) studies in 15 countries found that religious people are supportive of the social order in its values ​​intact, and do not welcome the openness and independence of the individual changes. Norris and Inglehart (Norris & amp; Inglehart, 2004) noted that religiosity is associated with the gross national product - the worse people live, the more they are involved in religion. In the US, the level of religiosity in different areas, you can predict the level of inequality in education, family income, and racial prejudice (Delamontagne, 2010). Think about it, religion "comes" to those who are poor and uneducated. From the point of view of evolution, it is - one of the ways the adaptive survival in appalling and hazardous conditions

. WE AND PARASITES - together or separately

? So, the theory explains and proves the numerous data that the prevalence of parasites and their evolution with man led to the diversity of cultures in our society, determining to what extent his spirit, religion, family values, traditions and more. As always in science, in theory, there are both supporters and opponents. In general, scientists do not deny the influence of parasitic stress, but note that more research is needed. Some, for example (Currie & amp; Mace, 2012), noted that the parasitic stress, as well as many environmental factors properties are correlated with latitude. There are climatic and economic theory (Van de Vliert, 2009), which explains the diversity of cultures climatic conditions. The worse the conditions of life, the more people are protected from the threats of social mechanisms of religion, family, and social order. Facts are accumulated, and with them more and more every year. A group of researchers (. Moore et al, 2013), recently found a link between stress and parasitic preferences of women: the higher the risk of infection, the more women prefer masculine partners face. Psychologists from the University of South Florida in Tampa (Vandello & amp; Hettinger, 2012) supplemented the theory of research that takes place in the so-called "culture of honor". Typically it refers to a society in which great attention is paid virginity. According to the theory of parasitic stress, the group is trying to not be in contact for a family with a foreigner because of the risk of the unknown disease. On the other hand, the group can not effectively reproduce own resources, practicing incest, due to genetic mutations. Under these conditions, the woman becomes a valuable object, measures its "purity." The family of the bride is interested in is to preserve her chastity before marriage in every sense, because her marriage may serve as a springboard to a higher social status of the family, if she marries a man standing high in the hierarchy of society. Scientists have found a correlation between stress and parasitic "culture of honor". Nobody wants to spoil the "valuable commodity" smoking, alcohol and promiscuity. Research scientists will continue, but even the fact that we now know enough to revolutionary changes. After all, by strengthening sanitary and hygienic standards, we not only reduce the morbidity and mortality, but also extend the liberal ideology, to reduce the likelihood of civil war, social, economic and gender inequality. Maybe it's time to say parasites, our companions on the evolutionary path, the last "goodbye»?

LINKS For skeptics

Cashdan, E. (2001). Ethnic diversity and its environmental determinants: Effects of climate, pathogens, and habitat diversity. American Anthropologist, 103 (4), 968-991.

Cox, F. E. G. (2002). History of human parasitology. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 15, 595-612.

Currie, T. E., & amp; Mace, R. (2012). Analyses do not support the parasite-stress theory of human sociality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35 (02), 83-85.

Diamond, J. (1997) .The Language Steamrollers. Nature, 389, 544-546.

Denic, S., & amp; Nicholls, M. G. (2007). Genetic benefit of consanguinity through selection of genotypes protective against malaria. Human Biology, 79, 145-158.

Fincher, C. L. & amp; Thornhill, R. (2008) .Assortative sociality, limited dispersal: Infectious disease and the genesis of the global patterns of religious diversity. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B:. Biological Sciences, 275, 2587-2594

Fincher, C. L., & amp; Thornhill, R. (2012) .Parasite-stress promotes in-group assortative sociality: The cases of strong family ties and heightened religiosity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35 (2), 61-79.

Fincher, C. L., Thornhill, R., Murray, D. R., & amp; Schaller, M. (2008). Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism / collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B:. Biological Sciences, 275 (one thousand six hundred and forty), 1279-1285

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McCleary, R. M. & amp; Barro, R. J. (2006). Religion and political economy in an international panel. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45, 149-175.

McNeill, W. H. (1998). Plagues and peoples.

Anchor.Miller, EN, Fadl, M., Mohamed, HS, Elzein, A., Jamieson, SE, Cordell, HJ, Peacock, CS, Fakiola, M., Raju, M., Khalil, EA, Elhassan, A. , Musa, AM, Ibrahim, ME, & amp; Blackwell, J. M. (2007) .Y chromosome lineage- and village-specific genes on chromosomes 1p22 and 6q27 control visceral leishmaniasis in Sudan. PLoS Genet, 3 (5), e71.

Moore, FR, Coetzee, V., Contreras-Garduso, J., Debruine, LM, Kleisner, K., Krams, I., Marcinkowska, U., Nord, A., Perrett, DI, Rantala, MJ, Schaum, N., & amp; Suzuki, T. N. (2013). Cross-cultural variation in women's preferences for cues to sex- and stress-hormones in the male face. Biology Letters, 9 (3).

Mortensen, C. R., Becker, D. V., Ackerman, J. M., Neuberg, S. L. & amp; Kenrick, D. T. (2010) Infection breeds reticence: the effects of disease salience on selfperceptions of personality and behavioral avoidance tendencies. Psychological Science, 21, 440-447.

Norris, P. & amp; Inglehart, R. (2004). Sacred and secular. New York:. Cambridge University Press

Rougeron, V., De Meeys, T., Hide, M., Waleckx, E., Bermudez, H., Arevalo, J., Llanos-Cuentas, A., Dujardin, J.-C., De Doncker, S ., Le Ray, D., Ayala, FJ, & amp; Basuls, A.-L. (2009). Extreme inbreeding in Leishmania braziliensis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106 (25), 10224-10229.

Saroglou, V., Delpierre, V., & amp; Dernelle, R. (2004). Values ​​and religiosity: a meta-analysis of studies using Schwartz's model. Personality and Individual Differences, 37 (4), 721-734.

Searcy, D. G. (2003). Metabolic integration during the evolutionary origin of mitochondria. Cell Research, 13, 229-238.

Sosis, R., & amp; Bressler, E. R. (2003). Cooperation and commune longevity: A test of the costly signaling theory of religion. Cross-Cultural Research, 37, 211-239.

Van de Vliert, E. (2009). Climate, affluence, and culture. Cambridge University Press.

Vandello, J. A., & amp; Hettinger, V. E. (2012). Parasite-stress, cultures of honor, and the emergence of gender bias in purity norms. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35 (02), 95-96.

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