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Russia: Hunters plasma
Author © Ralphmirebs
After a short introduction made a week ago, I open a series of articles on "Popular Physics." From childhood, everyone knows that the substance can be in three different states, namely solid, liquid and gaseous. The most telling example is the typical water, all of her condition, we can observe in ordinary everyday life, just in the kitchen. The liquid state flows from the tap, is solid in the refrigerator in the form of snow or floating in a glass of whiskey with ice cubes. And the last gaseous lives inside the kettle or seeks to escape from the pan by lifting its cover while cooking food.
However, the possible states of matter are not limited to these three, and there is a fourth, called plasma. The substance in the plasma state remains in gaseous form, but in addition to that acquires additional property of electrical conductivity, that is, passes through an electric current. If the normal air we can bring a hand to an electrical wall plug and electric shock us, then, if the air already in the state of plasma, we can get an electric shock. However, by itself the plasma current does not hit - it only conducts current from other sources, but does not create it. The cause of the electrical conductivity - separation of electrons from the atoms of the material constituting the plasma and transfer them to a free state. Atoms lose electrical neutrality and become ions. Plasma may have a different temperature, and, the higher it is, the "purer" plasma. In particular, at low temperatures, the electrons break away from a small number of atoms and number of ions formed is small, but by increasing the number of temperature increases, eventually achieving a complete ionization of the gas. Due to the emerging conductivity, the plasma becomes able to influence the magnetic and electric fields.
So as the temperature increases, the ions constituting the plasma start moving all the large and high speeds. As long as the temperature does not exceed a certain value, the ions collide with each other without any consequences, like tennis balls. But imagine what would happen if two balls to disperse up to very high speeds and then push? They do not fly off to the side and burst into pieces. A similar should have happened and ions in a strong pitting, he should break into pieces.
Ion arranged simple - the core and around it in orbits electrons revolve. The nuclei of all the ions have a positive charge, and two positive charges repel each other. The latter property all know the example of conventional magnets. At the magnet has two poles - positive and negative, so that the two magnets placed near or attracted to each other, or push off - it all depends on what they bring together the ends. In case of identical poles repulsion occurs, but, doing arm strength a person can bring magnets close. However, magnets are not just weak, but stronger and much more difficult to move.
In the case of ions, the positive charges of the same cores prevent them converge on a short distance at low speeds, jogging, strength of the repulsive force of the collision is greater than Jonah and fly away. Moreover, the closer the kernel trying to get closer to one another, the more increases the repulsive force (called the Coulomb force of repulsion). However, if the speed is still sufficient ions overcome the repulsive force of their nuclei and the face is not just a "failure" of the nucleus, and the two formed the new core of old, it has less weight than its predecessor. However, losing weight does not disappear just like that, and converted into energy. I think even those who did not know anything about physics, not seen the legendary Einstein's formula linking mass and energy. This formula is often wanders on various promotional posters and films, symbolizing simplicity and genius. But as you know, all genius is simple, straightforward, and the meaning of this formula - energy equals mass times the speed of light squared. Thus, the weight loss as a result of nuclear fusion is compensated by the emergence of energy and it is easy to recognize the value of this formula. Conventionally, for example, that we have lost one milligram weight - thus formed around 900000000000000 joules of energy. For many of Joel may be unfamiliar unit of measure, therefore, translate in kilowatt hours. 900000000000000 Joules is 250 million kilowatt hours. Modern gaming PC consumes a kilowatt per hour of electricity power networks working on energy from milligram masses could work without interruption 28 and a half years! Of course, the core ion weighs much less than a milligram, but the ions can be quite a lot, which compensates for the "weak" one.
Reaction to the collision of nuclei with the merger, the formation of the new kernel and the release of energy called a thermonuclear reaction. This term of two components - the "nuclear" and "thermo". "Nuclear" on what is the core merge, but the "Thermo." As I wrote above, the collision of nuclei, they (as a part of the ions) should have a fairly high speed, which is achieved due to the high temperature of the plasma. This is where the component is "Thermo" with a capital letter and not just. The temperature should be huge, just horrible, and hundreds of millions of degrees. It is to a temperature necessary to heat the plasma in order to start the fusion reaction.
In nature the fusion reactions take place in the space inside the star and they provide their combustion and glow in the world but no metal, ceramic or other material not withstand such high temperatures, it simply evaporates instantaneously. An example of this fusion bomb - after the explosion of it remains not only the body, but a sizeable piece of the surrounding countryside. However, because heat is necessary not just the substance and the plasma solution is. Plasma has a conductivity, and therefore act on her electric and magnetic fields. You can try to create a container from the magnetic field, which will be located inside the plasma, but thanks to magnetism, will not be able to pass through the field and come into contact with the external environment.
For the first time such an idea expressed in the late 40s of the twentieth century Academician GI Budker, who is also the founder of the Novosibirsk Institute of Nuclear Physics (INP). The proposal was immediately appreciated by the Soviet leadership, and all work on it classified. Only in 1968 the vulture was removed and the world learned about these studies and the creation of magnetic traps and magnetic plugs. Currently, there are two main types of traps - indoor and outdoor different topology (shape) of the magnetic field generated by them. In closed traps, it has the shape of a torus or donut, and the open cylinder. The INP, continuing the idea of Budker, are studying only open traps which, in contrast to the closed, have a much smaller size, simple design and a low price. INP is a world leader in the study of the pitfalls of this type. Of course, now there is no question about the commercial use of such traps for energy, this is purely experimental installation, which investigates the properties of plasma, its behavior and ways to effectively hold. One of the units created in the INP is the GOL-3 or corrugated open traps.
4)
The GOL-3 is a solenoid that is long and thin 12-meter tube, which is put on the set of coils inside the tube creating a powerful magnetic field. Total coil 110, all of them numbered.
5)
6)
7)
8)
Prior to installation work, vacuum pumps pumped the air out of the tube, and then is injected into the deuterium atoms. Deuterium is a stable isotope of hydrogen contained and extracted from ordinary water. After the "fuel loading", the contents of the tube needs to be heated to tens of millions of degrees. Of course, this temperature can not be obtained by heating the tube in the flame of a candle or kitchen tile. One simple way is to pass the mixture through a beam of charged particles. For this purpose, one end of the tube is crowned with a small accelerator, creating electron emission.
9)
10)
11)
In fact, heating is in two stages - first by passing electric charge give a so-called preheating to 20 thousand degrees, and then "injection" of the electron beam should be heated to 50-60 million degrees. In this state, only the plasma is confined by a millisecond, but during this time devices have time to take readings for later analysis. All this time, the coil is energized, they create a magnetic field around five Tesla. Such a strong field, obeying the laws of physics, the coil tends to break apart, and to prevent this, they are secured with strong steel fasteners.
12)
13)
Source:
After a short introduction made a week ago, I open a series of articles on "Popular Physics." From childhood, everyone knows that the substance can be in three different states, namely solid, liquid and gaseous. The most telling example is the typical water, all of her condition, we can observe in ordinary everyday life, just in the kitchen. The liquid state flows from the tap, is solid in the refrigerator in the form of snow or floating in a glass of whiskey with ice cubes. And the last gaseous lives inside the kettle or seeks to escape from the pan by lifting its cover while cooking food.
However, the possible states of matter are not limited to these three, and there is a fourth, called plasma. The substance in the plasma state remains in gaseous form, but in addition to that acquires additional property of electrical conductivity, that is, passes through an electric current. If the normal air we can bring a hand to an electrical wall plug and electric shock us, then, if the air already in the state of plasma, we can get an electric shock. However, by itself the plasma current does not hit - it only conducts current from other sources, but does not create it. The cause of the electrical conductivity - separation of electrons from the atoms of the material constituting the plasma and transfer them to a free state. Atoms lose electrical neutrality and become ions. Plasma may have a different temperature, and, the higher it is, the "purer" plasma. In particular, at low temperatures, the electrons break away from a small number of atoms and number of ions formed is small, but by increasing the number of temperature increases, eventually achieving a complete ionization of the gas. Due to the emerging conductivity, the plasma becomes able to influence the magnetic and electric fields.
So as the temperature increases, the ions constituting the plasma start moving all the large and high speeds. As long as the temperature does not exceed a certain value, the ions collide with each other without any consequences, like tennis balls. But imagine what would happen if two balls to disperse up to very high speeds and then push? They do not fly off to the side and burst into pieces. A similar should have happened and ions in a strong pitting, he should break into pieces.
Ion arranged simple - the core and around it in orbits electrons revolve. The nuclei of all the ions have a positive charge, and two positive charges repel each other. The latter property all know the example of conventional magnets. At the magnet has two poles - positive and negative, so that the two magnets placed near or attracted to each other, or push off - it all depends on what they bring together the ends. In case of identical poles repulsion occurs, but, doing arm strength a person can bring magnets close. However, magnets are not just weak, but stronger and much more difficult to move.
In the case of ions, the positive charges of the same cores prevent them converge on a short distance at low speeds, jogging, strength of the repulsive force of the collision is greater than Jonah and fly away. Moreover, the closer the kernel trying to get closer to one another, the more increases the repulsive force (called the Coulomb force of repulsion). However, if the speed is still sufficient ions overcome the repulsive force of their nuclei and the face is not just a "failure" of the nucleus, and the two formed the new core of old, it has less weight than its predecessor. However, losing weight does not disappear just like that, and converted into energy. I think even those who did not know anything about physics, not seen the legendary Einstein's formula linking mass and energy. This formula is often wanders on various promotional posters and films, symbolizing simplicity and genius. But as you know, all genius is simple, straightforward, and the meaning of this formula - energy equals mass times the speed of light squared. Thus, the weight loss as a result of nuclear fusion is compensated by the emergence of energy and it is easy to recognize the value of this formula. Conventionally, for example, that we have lost one milligram weight - thus formed around 900000000000000 joules of energy. For many of Joel may be unfamiliar unit of measure, therefore, translate in kilowatt hours. 900000000000000 Joules is 250 million kilowatt hours. Modern gaming PC consumes a kilowatt per hour of electricity power networks working on energy from milligram masses could work without interruption 28 and a half years! Of course, the core ion weighs much less than a milligram, but the ions can be quite a lot, which compensates for the "weak" one.
Reaction to the collision of nuclei with the merger, the formation of the new kernel and the release of energy called a thermonuclear reaction. This term of two components - the "nuclear" and "thermo". "Nuclear" on what is the core merge, but the "Thermo." As I wrote above, the collision of nuclei, they (as a part of the ions) should have a fairly high speed, which is achieved due to the high temperature of the plasma. This is where the component is "Thermo" with a capital letter and not just. The temperature should be huge, just horrible, and hundreds of millions of degrees. It is to a temperature necessary to heat the plasma in order to start the fusion reaction.
In nature the fusion reactions take place in the space inside the star and they provide their combustion and glow in the world but no metal, ceramic or other material not withstand such high temperatures, it simply evaporates instantaneously. An example of this fusion bomb - after the explosion of it remains not only the body, but a sizeable piece of the surrounding countryside. However, because heat is necessary not just the substance and the plasma solution is. Plasma has a conductivity, and therefore act on her electric and magnetic fields. You can try to create a container from the magnetic field, which will be located inside the plasma, but thanks to magnetism, will not be able to pass through the field and come into contact with the external environment.
For the first time such an idea expressed in the late 40s of the twentieth century Academician GI Budker, who is also the founder of the Novosibirsk Institute of Nuclear Physics (INP). The proposal was immediately appreciated by the Soviet leadership, and all work on it classified. Only in 1968 the vulture was removed and the world learned about these studies and the creation of magnetic traps and magnetic plugs. Currently, there are two main types of traps - indoor and outdoor different topology (shape) of the magnetic field generated by them. In closed traps, it has the shape of a torus or donut, and the open cylinder. The INP, continuing the idea of Budker, are studying only open traps which, in contrast to the closed, have a much smaller size, simple design and a low price. INP is a world leader in the study of the pitfalls of this type. Of course, now there is no question about the commercial use of such traps for energy, this is purely experimental installation, which investigates the properties of plasma, its behavior and ways to effectively hold. One of the units created in the INP is the GOL-3 or corrugated open traps.
4)
The GOL-3 is a solenoid that is long and thin 12-meter tube, which is put on the set of coils inside the tube creating a powerful magnetic field. Total coil 110, all of them numbered.
5)
6)
7)
8)
Prior to installation work, vacuum pumps pumped the air out of the tube, and then is injected into the deuterium atoms. Deuterium is a stable isotope of hydrogen contained and extracted from ordinary water. After the "fuel loading", the contents of the tube needs to be heated to tens of millions of degrees. Of course, this temperature can not be obtained by heating the tube in the flame of a candle or kitchen tile. One simple way is to pass the mixture through a beam of charged particles. For this purpose, one end of the tube is crowned with a small accelerator, creating electron emission.
9)
10)
11)
In fact, heating is in two stages - first by passing electric charge give a so-called preheating to 20 thousand degrees, and then "injection" of the electron beam should be heated to 50-60 million degrees. In this state, only the plasma is confined by a millisecond, but during this time devices have time to take readings for later analysis. All this time, the coil is energized, they create a magnetic field around five Tesla. Such a strong field, obeying the laws of physics, the coil tends to break apart, and to prevent this, they are secured with strong steel fasteners.
12)
13)
Source:
